The pathology of Parkinson's disease, and how to counteract it Essay

The pathology of Parkinson's disease, and how to counteract it - Essay Example This research will begin with the definition of Parkinson’s disease commonly referred to as PD as one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases. PD affects mostly the neurons located in the nervous system. The affected neurons located in the basal ganglia cavity get deteriorated affecting the normal functions of the nervous system resulting in rigidity, tremor, and bradykinesia. The resulting PD conditions get worse with age making it complicated to treat and control. More studies have to be conducted in an effort to come up with better strategies to counteract the disease. In order to identify different treatment methods, the pathology of the disease has to be understood which has also proved to be a complex process. Studies conducted earlier have failed to identify the main factors behind PD irregular form making it almost impossible to come up with a single method of treating the disease. Parkinson’s condition normally affects the dopaminergic cells located in th e substantial nigra region by altering their normal activity of secreting dopamine. Dopaminergic cells form part of the neural circuits and once the circuit inside the basal ganglia is affected, the process of regulating movement will be inhibited.   The movement regulation process involves both the indirect and direct pathways which are responsible for inhibiting and facilitating movement respectively. This implies that when the dopaminergic cells are lost, the disease condition will result in a movement disorder. PD results to the loss of more the 70% of the dopamine cells at its onset which is later followed by dopamine terminals asymmetric loss taking place in the striatum. When a patient is affected by PD, his or her circuitry balance in normally lost. Such loss comes about as a result of dopamine depletion. The parts that are affected in this case are the indirect and direct pathways whose nuclei are responsible for inhibiting the thalamus. When the activities of these nuclei found in the pathways increase, the inhibition process is consequently increased reducing the normal movement of a person. Another conditions resulting to the disease is the degeneration process that takes place in the presence of proteinaceous inclusions, which include; intracytoplasmic and Lewy bodies (LBs) (Blandini 1). The Lewy bodies are located in the brain cells and consist of different types of proteins which after degenerating they give rise to the PD conditions affecting the brain and the nervous system. The LBs can be easily identified when they affect the brain cells as they are spherical in shape with a core that is central and granular with a fibrillary halo surrounding it as shown in figure 1 bellow. The SNC activities are responsible for some of the PD symptoms including movement execution, tremors and muscle rigidity (Blandini 6). Figure 1 showing a Lewy body located in the brain cell (Cuerda 102). The death of Nigral cells is normally facilitated by the presence environmental toxins and the reduced number of Nigral cells consequently results in protein aggregation and mitochondrial defects (Blandini 1). The death of nigral cell is thus one of the main causes of neuron degeneration. Some of the factors leading to nigral cell death through abnormal apoptosis regulation include; impaired mitochondrial activities, proteasomal impairment or glutamate receptors excessive stimulation (Cuerda 102). Several methods of treating and controlling PD have been proposed. Among the many strategies is the L-3, 4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) which is the oldest and the mostly commonly used (Schapira 102). L-DOPA treatment targets nervous system barrier between the brain and blood forming a reduced section of the brain as shown in the figure bellow. Once in the brain, L-DOPA is converted to the dopamine where it is broken down to form various systems of enzymes in the brain.

Sigmund Freud.His Conception Of Mental Illness Essay

Sigmund Freud.His Conception Of Mental Illness - Essay Example For a long time, mental handicaps were seen as completely insurmountable, just something that nobody could engage with or do anything about. In the 20th century, though, that began to change. The notion that mental illness was treatable began to become widespread, and mental hospitals because places of treatment rather than mere confinement. A good example of the changing attitudes is the 1975 film One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, based on Ken Kesey’s 1962 novel of the same title. In it, Randle McMurphy, played by Jack Nicholson, is transferred from prison to a mental institution, where he challenges the way the institution is run. Prior to his arrival, the institution is essentially a holding pen, a place where people are kept because society doesn’t want to deal with them. There is no real expectation that anyone ever will, or ever can, leave the institution or be cured of their problems. Indeed, McMurphy initially goes there because he thinks it will be an easier place than prison to serve out the remainder of his sentence, only to discover that one he’s in the institutional system, he can be kept there indefinitely against his will. However, by engaging with the other patients as human beings, McMurphy challenges the authority of the institutional system.... The 1960s were a fertile time for changing attitudes, and the liberation of McMurphy’s compatriots should be seen in that context. In 1968, the Special Olympics were founded, as parents of mentally disabled children were encouraged for the first time to take pride in their offspring despite their disability. Prior to this era, such parents were frequently told to have their children permanently institutionalized, and tell people they were dead. As another example, three years prior to the release of One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, there had been a famous television expose of the Willowbrook State School, a grossly abusive and inadequate institution for mentally disabled children and youths. It led to a public outcry and a series of reforms in how such institutions were run. One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, in that sense, is chronicling an unfolding cultural narrative about the treatment of mental handicaps; it’s a story about changing attitudes that came out in a time of changing attitudes. There is often an easy narrative applied to the Civil War, one in which evil, racist Confederates are opposed by virtuous, non-racist Union troops. Few would phrase it in exactly that way, but that is the basic structure of the model many people absorb from pop culture and conventional wisdom. Like most such good-vs.-evil narratives, it is a gross oversimplification that misses much of its own point. Reality is, as ever, more complex. At another end of the spectrum, one finds those who insist that the war had nothing to do with slavery, that that was a mere incidental issue. Considering that every state that seceded wrote an elaborate proclamation of their reasons, and that every one of those documents cites slavery as their central ideological issue, the

Children's Literature Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Children's Literature Critique - Essay Example In the first part of the book, the story revolves around Pacman-looking circle, searching for the lost pizza-like piece which completes its being. There is no indication whether Pacman-looking circle is a male or female. Pacman-looking circle looks for the missing pizza-like piece everywhere, asking people it meets along the way if they have seen the missing piece or if they can give directions leading to where the missing piece is. It looks everyone and does not give up with the search since it has high hopes that it was going to find the missing piece. In his search, it sings a melancholic song which it hums to show how sad it was for not finding its missing piece. The song, â€Å"Oh, I am looking for my missing piece; I am looking for my missing piece†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Silverstein, 1976) makes readers feel the pain the Pacman-looking circle has. Pacman-looking circle finds several pieces a long its way. It tries if they can fit in the space only to be disappointed that they cannot. Some fitThis does not discourage it since it goes on with its search with hopes that it would find the missing piece. The first part of the series comes to an end when Pacman-looking circle finally finds its missing piece. It is intriguing to note that Pacman-looking circle fits the missing piece only to realize that it cannot put up with it. ... Silverstein demonstrates that the missing piece had not come to terms with Pacman-looking circle’s realization that one should be happy with the way they are. It was searching for a piece to make it complete. However, upon meeting the big O, the missing piece is made to understand the fulfillment one gets by understanding one-self. The big O mentors the missing piece and makes it understand that there is no need to look for another piece to make it complete. The content in The Missing Piece series is suitable for young children. This is because at this age, most children normally face challenges of self-acceptance brought about by some of the imperfections they may have. For instance, an albino child may be alienated from his peers because he or she feels out of place. In as much as being an albino is not his or her wish; the child should be made aware that the condition should not be a hindrance to his or her communication and interaction with others. Therefore, by reading th e book, children will get an understanding of how they are. Additionally, will learn to appreciate and love themselves despite the imperfections they have. The book also has basic illustrations and simple phrases that catch the attention of children. For instance, while describing the missing piece’s movement, Silverstein (1976) asserts, â€Å"the missing piece was bumping instead of flopping, and then it was bouncing instead of bumping.† Such illustrations arouse the interests of young children. The front cover of the book also has the picture of the Pacman-looking circle, and it is most certain that children who have a glimpse of it on bookstore shelves would request

The pathology of Parkinson's disease, and how to counteract it Essay

The pathology of Parkinson's disease, and how to counteract it - Essay Example This research will begin with the definition of Parkinson’s disease commonly referred to as PD as one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases. PD affects mostly the neurons located in the nervous system. The affected neurons located in the basal ganglia cavity get deteriorated affecting the normal functions of the nervous system resulting in rigidity, tremor, and bradykinesia. The resulting PD conditions get worse with age making it complicated to treat and control. More studies have to be conducted in an effort to come up with better strategies to counteract the disease. In order to identify different treatment methods, the pathology of the disease has to be understood which has also proved to be a complex process. Studies conducted earlier have failed to identify the main factors behind PD irregular form making it almost impossible to come up with a single method of treating the disease. Parkinson’s condition normally affects the dopaminergic cells located in th e substantial nigra region by altering their normal activity of secreting dopamine. Dopaminergic cells form part of the neural circuits and once the circuit inside the basal ganglia is affected, the process of regulating movement will be inhibited.   The movement regulation process involves both the indirect and direct pathways which are responsible for inhibiting and facilitating movement respectively. This implies that when the dopaminergic cells are lost, the disease condition will result in a movement disorder. PD results to the loss of more the 70% of the dopamine cells at its onset which is later followed by dopamine terminals asymmetric loss taking place in the striatum. When a patient is affected by PD, his or her circuitry balance in normally lost. Such loss comes about as a result of dopamine depletion. The parts that are affected in this case are the indirect and direct pathways whose nuclei are responsible for inhibiting the thalamus. When the activities of these nuclei found in the pathways increase, the inhibition process is consequently increased reducing the normal movement of a person. Another conditions resulting to the disease is the degeneration process that takes place in the presence of proteinaceous inclusions, which include; intracytoplasmic and Lewy bodies (LBs) (Blandini 1). The Lewy bodies are located in the brain cells and consist of different types of proteins which after degenerating they give rise to the PD conditions affecting the brain and the nervous system. The LBs can be easily identified when they affect the brain cells as they are spherical in shape with a core that is central and granular with a fibrillary halo surrounding it as shown in figure 1 bellow. The SNC activities are responsible for some of the PD symptoms including movement execution, tremors and muscle rigidity (Blandini 6). Figure 1 showing a Lewy body located in the brain cell (Cuerda 102). The death of Nigral cells is normally facilitated by the presence environmental toxins and the reduced number of Nigral cells consequently results in protein aggregation and mitochondrial defects (Blandini 1). The death of nigral cell is thus one of the main causes of neuron degeneration. Some of the factors leading to nigral cell death through abnormal apoptosis regulation include; impaired mitochondrial activities, proteasomal impairment or glutamate receptors excessive stimulation (Cuerda 102). Several methods of treating and controlling PD have been proposed. Among the many strategies is the L-3, 4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) which is the oldest and the mostly commonly used (Schapira 102). L-DOPA treatment targets nervous system barrier between the brain and blood forming a reduced section of the brain as shown in the figure bellow. Once in the brain, L-DOPA is converted to the dopamine where it is broken down to form various systems of enzymes in the brain.

Children's Literature Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Children's Literature Critique - Essay Example In the first part of the book, the story revolves around Pacman-looking circle, searching for the lost pizza-like piece which completes its being. There is no indication whether Pacman-looking circle is a male or female. Pacman-looking circle looks for the missing pizza-like piece everywhere, asking people it meets along the way if they have seen the missing piece or if they can give directions leading to where the missing piece is. It looks everyone and does not give up with the search since it has high hopes that it was going to find the missing piece. In his search, it sings a melancholic song which it hums to show how sad it was for not finding its missing piece. The song, â€Å"Oh, I am looking for my missing piece; I am looking for my missing piece†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Silverstein, 1976) makes readers feel the pain the Pacman-looking circle has. Pacman-looking circle finds several pieces a long its way. It tries if they can fit in the space only to be disappointed that they cannot. Some fitThis does not discourage it since it goes on with its search with hopes that it would find the missing piece. The first part of the series comes to an end when Pacman-looking circle finally finds its missing piece. It is intriguing to note that Pacman-looking circle fits the missing piece only to realize that it cannot put up with it. ... Silverstein demonstrates that the missing piece had not come to terms with Pacman-looking circle’s realization that one should be happy with the way they are. It was searching for a piece to make it complete. However, upon meeting the big O, the missing piece is made to understand the fulfillment one gets by understanding one-self. The big O mentors the missing piece and makes it understand that there is no need to look for another piece to make it complete. The content in The Missing Piece series is suitable for young children. This is because at this age, most children normally face challenges of self-acceptance brought about by some of the imperfections they may have. For instance, an albino child may be alienated from his peers because he or she feels out of place. In as much as being an albino is not his or her wish; the child should be made aware that the condition should not be a hindrance to his or her communication and interaction with others. Therefore, by reading th e book, children will get an understanding of how they are. Additionally, will learn to appreciate and love themselves despite the imperfections they have. The book also has basic illustrations and simple phrases that catch the attention of children. For instance, while describing the missing piece’s movement, Silverstein (1976) asserts, â€Å"the missing piece was bumping instead of flopping, and then it was bouncing instead of bumping.† Such illustrations arouse the interests of young children. The front cover of the book also has the picture of the Pacman-looking circle, and it is most certain that children who have a glimpse of it on bookstore shelves would request

Drug offenders sdmitted to prison Essay Example for Free

Drug offenders sdmitted to prison Essay The single greatest force behind the growth of the U. S. prison system since the mid-1980s has been the national war on drugs. 45 Spearheaded by major federal drug policy initiatives that significantly increased penalties for drug offenses and markedly increased federal funds for state anti-drug efforts, federal and state measures to combat drugs have concentrated on criminal law enforcement rather than prevention and treatment. 46 An estimated 400,000 people almost one-quarter of the total incarcerated population in the U. S. are confined in local jails and state and federal prisons on drug charges. 47 Citing the extraordinary number of drug offenders in U. S. prisons, General Barry McCaffrey, has decried the creation of what he termed a drug gulag. 48 Policies adopted to battle the use and sale of drugs have led to marked increases in arrest rates, in the likelihood of going to prison, and in the length of sentences for drug offenders. Between 1980 and 1997, the number of annual drug arrests tripled to a high of 1,584,000. 49 The rate of drug arrests per 100,000 residents rose from 288 to 661. 50 The rate of commitment to state prison per drug arrest quintupled between 1980 and 1990, rising from 19 prison commitments per 1,000 arrests to 103 per 1,000. 51 The estimated time served by drug offenders in state prisons increased a full year between 1987 and 1996; federal drug sentences doubled. 52 As of 1997, there were an estimated 285,009 men and women in state and federal prisons on drug charges, a twelvefold increase since 1980. 53 Relative to the adult population, the rate of incarceration of drug offenders hasincreased almost tenfold, rising from less than 15 inmates per 100,000 adults to 148 per 100,000. 54 In 1980, drug offenders comprised only six percent of state prison populations. By 1998, they constituted 21 percent. In federal prisons, drug offenders now comprise 59 percent of all inmates, whereas they represented only a quarter of federal inmates in 1980. 55 Drug Offenders Admitted to Prison Between 1980 and 1998, the number of new admissions of drug offenders to state and federal prison soared, exceeding 1. 5 million in total (Figure 5). In recent years, about one hundred thousand drug offenders have been admitted to prison annually. Nationwide, 31 percent of all admissions to state prison in 1996 were drug offenders. Among the states, the proportion of drug offenders varied between a low of 10 percent in Maine to a high of 46. 6 percent in New Jersey and 44. 7 percent in New York (Figure 6). In three quarters of the states, more than one in five persons sent to prison was convicted of a drug offense. In contrast, violent offenders accounted nationwide for only 26. 8 percent of new state prison admissions. Rate of Admission of Drug Offenders There is a remarkable range in the extent to which states subject their populations to incarceration on drug charges (Table 8). The rates of admission of drug offenders to prison per 100,000 adult residents vary from a low of 6 per 100,000 in Maine to a high of 91 in California. The ten states that have the highest rates of drug offender admissions relative to population are: California, Illinois, Louisiana, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Washington. Nationwide, drug offenders are sent to prison at a rate, relative to population, that is 13 percent higher than the rate for violent offenders (Table 9). In one half of the states reporting to NCRP, the admission rates for drug offenders exceed those for persons convicted of violent crimes. Six states Arkansas, California, Illinois, New Jersey, New York, and Virginia send drug offenders to prison at rates that range from 50 to 100 percent higher than the rates for violent offenders. Drug Offending and Prison Admissions The broad range in admission rates for drug offenders across the country cannot be ascribed simply to variations in drug use and sales in different states. Table 10, covering twenty six states, presents federal estimates of the percentage of the population over 12 in those states who were current illicit drug users in 1991-1993. 56 Although some drug users may cross state lines to purchase drugs, we assume that relative rates of drug use in each state also roughly reflect relative amounts of drug sale activity. Comparing drug use rates with calculations of the rate relative to population at which drug offenders in those states were sent to prison reveals the lack of a consistent correlation between drug offending and the imprisonment of drug offenders. First, the percentage of the population that used drugs varied among states from 4. 1 to 8. 2 percent, compared to a range in drug offender admission rates that extended from 8 to 91. Second, the states with higher rates of drug use were not necessarily the states with higher drug offender admission rates. Oregon, for example, had the third highest percentage of drug use, yet it had one of the lowest rates of drug admissions. In contrast, California had both the highest rate of drug use and the highest rate of drug offender admissions. Third, lower drug use did not necessarily correlate with low drug offender admissions rates. The percentage of Illinois population that used drugs was quite low, yet the statehad the second highest rate of drug offender admissions. Similarly, Louisiana had a relatively low rate of drug use yet it had one of the highest rates of drug admissions. Obviously, no definitive conclusions can be drawn from a comparison of these two rather crude sets of figures. Nevertheless, the data suggest the explanation for the different rates at which people are sent to prison for drug offenses must lie in different penal policies and priorities among the states, including different law enforcement resources and strategies, prosecutorial charging preferences, and sentencing laws, as well as structural and demographic factors, e. g. , degrees of urbanization, rather than rates of drug offending. Drugs Involved In Offense The NCRP data does not permit reliable calculations about the extent to which different hard drugs (e. g. , cocaine, amphetamines, heroin) were involved in drug offenses. The data is somewhat better with regard to the identification of marijuana offenses, which were identified as the drug involved in 4. 3 percent of all drug admissions. 57 In nine states marijuana offenses accounted for more than ten percent of drug admissions: Alabama (16. 09), Iowa (17. 22), Kentucky (12. 4), Mississippi (14. 50), New Hampshire (28. 83), North Dakota (43. 02), South Carolina (11. 25), South Dakota (18. 3), and West Virginia (20. 63) (Table 11). Type of Drug Conduct People are sent to prison for both drug possession and sales-related conduct. In 1996, the simple possession of drugs (excluding possession with intent to sell) was the most serious conviction offense for 28 percent of all drug offenders admitted to state prison (Table 12). Fifty-six percent of drug offender admissions were for drug sales, and the rest for other drug-related offenses (e. g. , fraudulent prescriptions and unlawful possession of syringes). In nine states (Alabama, Colorado, Georgia, Minnesota, Mississippi, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, and Virginia) more than 50 percent of drug offenders sent to prison were convicted of simple possession.

What is penal welfarism? Garlands theory.

What is penal welfarism? Garlands theory. What is penal welfarism? Evaluate the impact it has had on juvenile justice reform in the UK from the beginning of the twentieth century to the present. In order to evaluate the impact of penal welfarism upon juvenile justice reform, the concept will be defined with reference to Garland (2001). The contributing societal factors to the emergence of penal welfarism in juvenile justice reform will then be assessed. The practical and legal achievements of penal welfarism in the juvenile justice system will be identified. Challenges to penal welfarism will be outlined, with particular reference to alternate conceptions of youth justice and criminality. The demise of the penal welfarism approach will be assessed, with specific reference to the motivating societal factors and comparison between the Welsh, English and Scottish juvenile justice systems. Penal welfarism as defined by Garland (2001) as a structural response to crime that is composed of two ideological standpoints. Due process and proportionate punishment, with their inherent liberal ideologies, ensure that all the rights of the juvenile offender are respected. The punishment is fitting to the crime and the circumstances of the juvenile offender. Rehabilitation and offender welfare are approached from a correctionalist viewpoint. This entails that the punishment served by the offender maintains a focus upon the rehabilitation of the offender, as does the approach of professionals who work with the offender during the punishment period. In short, penal welfarism suggests that rehabilitation will be most effective if the offender is provided with positive motivation while in the care of the penal reform system. The logic behind the practice is that if the offender is provided with the opportunity to progress in the penal institution, they will wish to continue to do so w hen released back into society. The notion of penal welfarism is derived from applying the practicalities of the welfarism ideology to the penal system. The welfarism concept asserts that policy requires evaluation in terms of its consequences (Kaplow Shavell, 2002). This assessment is most frequently made using a utilitarian approach, i.e. the usefulness of the approach in question. The logical application of this concept to the penal system dictates that policy regarding offender treatment should be assessed in terms of offender rehabilitation, i.e. the offender will not repeatedly offend upon release and as a result society will be safer. The focus is upon the usefulness of the punishment, i.e. its resulting benefit to society and improvement of personal conditions. Therefore penal welfarism maintains a focus on respecting the rights of the individual and maintaining a rehabilitative approach as this is deemed to be the most beneficial approach for both the offender and for society. The formation and application of penal welfarism to juvenile justice reform is interrelated with the emergence of a welfare state at the turn of the 20th century (Garland, 2002). The welfare state was implemented by the Liberal government in order to meet demands to negate social insecurity while protecting free trade and a capitalist economy (Daunton, 2007). The emergence of free trade had resulted in increased unemployment and harsher social conditions for those at the lower end of the pay spectrum. However, free trade and capitalism were deemed as models that required protection. Therefore pensions, health services and other such welfare services were centralized and nationalized to ensure that these individuals would be protected in the capitalist state. Garland (2002) identifies these welfare systems as being rooted in ideologies of protection and integration, so that even the most disadvantaged members of society are protected by the welfare state. Out of this ideology was born penal welfarism for juvenile justice. As these social and economical reforms based taxation upon the basis of the individual workers rather than according to the class system (Leonard, 2003), each member of society was treated upon the basis of individual circumstance, in theory dispelling the class system. Therefore, within the penal system for juvenile justice, individualism arose where the rights and rehabilitation of each offender was considered. The main legal and practical development in respect to penal welfarism was the separation of individuals under the age of 21 from adults in the justice system. In light of the requirement to individualize and respect the rights of each juvenile offender, juvenile courts were officially established by the Children Act 1908 (Goldson Muncie, 2008). In addition to this, corrective Borstals were created for juveniles under the age of 21. Individuals could be sentenced to a period in such an institution for between one and three years. It was considered that these institutions were to focus on rehabilitation of the juvenile, and the training of the juvenile to be re-integrated with society upon their release (Muncie, 2006). The role of the juvenile justice system was further defined by the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 (Ikin, 1933). This Act entailed the reorganization of reform schools so that they provided education to offenders; and training so that they may find employment upon completion of their sentence. Furthermore capital punishment for any offender below the age of 18 was abolished by the Act. Issues of anonymity were also covered (Ikin, 1933). The media were and are able to report the name of an adult offender if it was deemed to serve public interests. However, the identity of juvenile offenders was protected by the law. The penal welfarism approach to juvenile justice was criticized on both economical and ideological grounds. Economically, this system, and the welfare system in general, was criticized as being born out of fear of free trade and the emergence of corporations as the dominant financial players in society (Platt, 2002). Increased spending on the welfare system and individualist taxation were contributing factors to this. Ideologically, the concept has been challenged with reference to the societal conception of crime reformation and with reference to the individual in the system. In terms of the latter, it is the goal of reformation that is problematic. For example, Hudson (2002) outlines institutional sexism that was apparent in the penal welfarism definitions of rehabilitation. Discrepancies in the social moral code that must be adhered to by males and females highlighted unfairness in the treatment of females in this system. While rehabilitation of the male juvenile offender focused on the criminal act, female rehabilitation focused much more strongly on personal and sexual behaviour within society. In terms of societal conceptions of crime, it has been argued that viewing the juvenile as on a linear path through deviance (diversion) may be more effective in terms of negating re-offending (Austin Krisberg, 2002). Furthermore, re-defining what is considered a criminal act, for example, the redefinition of drug use as a social as opposed to a criminal problem; may result in a more effective approach to the problem in comparison to penal welfarism (Austin Krisberg, 2002). After a period of a Labour government working to enhance the ideology of care for the juvenile offender in the 1960s; the penal welfarism approach began to decline when the Conservatives came to power in the 1970 General Election (Smith, 2007). It was considered that the judicial and welfare aspects had become disjointed, and the focus began to grow upon the judicial proceedings of the system. This is evident by the significant increase in the number of juveniles receiving custodial sentences in the 1970s (Rutter Giller, 1983). The ideology increasingly narrowed onto punishment and control (Geisthorpe Morris, 2002) throughout the 1980s, especially in England and Wales. The issue of juvenile crime was focused onto the victims, with the criminals perpetrated as depraved (Jones, 1994). Echoes of this can be seen in present day society where hooded teenagers are feared by adult society (for an example of this see MacLean, 2008). Importantly, the Criminal Justice Act 1991 brought in a s eparation of systems, one to deal with juveniles requiring judicial attention, and one for those in need of welfare provision (Geisthorpe Morris, 2002). While England and Wales fully segregated these two systems, Scottish practices of juvenile justice policies maintained a higher level of communication between the two approaches. However, societal moral panics regarding serious youth crime and repeat offending has created a concern that juvenile offenders are not aware of the impact of their actions (Jones, 1994). This could possibly be related to the breakdown of community. These concerns have paved the way for a juvenile justice ideology that is based upon restorative justice as set out by the Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999 (Geisthorpe Morris, 2002). Penal welfarism refers to a system that presents positive motivations for juvenile offenders to develop while in the penal system. The concept arose with the birth of the welfare state. Penal welfarism resulted in the segregation of juveniles from adults in the judicial process, the eradication of capital punishment for juveniles and anonymity of juvenile offenders from the media. As a concept, it was challenged for the welfare state’s impact upon free trade. It was also challenged by its characterisation of the juvenile offender; diversion and decriminalisation were offered as alternate ideologies. The concept demised with the segregation of welfare and judicial proceedings for adolescents. Societal factors for this include a fear of the juvenile offender. This has led to a focus on restorative justice which is implemented in juvenile reform today. References Austin, J., Krisberg, B. (2002). Wider, stronger and different nets: the dialects of criminal justice reform. In J. Muncie, G., Hughes E. McLaughlin (Eds.), Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London: Sage Publications Ltd. Daunton, M. (2007). Wealth and Welfare: An Economic and Social History of Britain 1851-1951). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Garland, D. (2001). The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Garland, D. (2002). Penal strategies in a welfare state. In J. Muncie, G., Hughes E. McLaughlin (Eds.), Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London: Sage Publications Ltd. Geisthorpe, L., Morris, A. (2002). Restorative Youth Justice: the last vestiges of welfare? In J. Muncie, G., Hughes E. McLaughlin (Eds.), Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London: Sage Publications Ltd. Goldson, B., Muncie, J. (2008). Youth Crime and Juvenile Justice. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Hudson, A. (2002). ‘Troublesome girls’: Towards alternative definitions and policies. In J. Muncie, G., Hughes E. McLaughlin (Eds.), Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London: Sage Publications Ltd. Ikin, A.E. (1933). Children and Young Persons Act, 1933: Being the Text of the Statute together with Explanatory Notes. London: Sir I. Pitman and Sons. Jones, M. (1994). Images and reality: Juvenile crime, youth violence and public policy. London: National Council on Crime and Delinquency. Kaplow, L., Shavell, S. (2002). Fairness versus Welfare.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Leonard, M. (2003). Promoting Welfare? Government Information Policy and Social Citizenship. Bristol: Policy Press. MacLean, D. (2008). New hoodies are a yob’s dream. The Shields Gazette, 9th August. Muncie, J. (2006). From Borstal to YOI. In Y. Jewkes H. Johnston (Eds.) Prison Readings. Devon: Willan Publishing. Platt, A. (2002). The triumph of benevolence: the origins of the juvenile system in the United States. In J. Muncie, G., Hughes E. McLaughlin (Eds.), Youth Justice: Critical Readings, London: Sage Publications Ltd. Rutter, M., Giller, H. (1983). Juvenile Delinquency: Trends and Perspectives. New York: Guilford Publications. Smith, R. (2007). Youth Justice: Ideas, Policy, Practice. Devon: Willan Publishing.